Water Conflict Chronology

As of December 6, 2004

Water Conflict Chronology¹

Dr. Peter H. Gleick

Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security (www.pacinst.org)

Date	Parties Involved	Basis of Conflict	Violent Conflict or In the Context of Violence?	Description	Sources

3000 BC	Ea, Noah	Religious account	Yes	Ancient Sumerian legend recounts the deeds of the deity Ea, who punished humanity for its sins by inflicting the Earth with a six-day storm. The Sumerian myth parallels the Biblical account of Noah and the deluge, although some details differ.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
2500 BC	Lagash, Umma	Military tool	Yes	Lagash-Umma Border Dispute-The dispute over the “Gu’edena” (edge of paradise) region begins. Urlama, King of Lagash from 2450 to 2400 B.C., diverts water from this region to boundary canals, drying up boundary ditches to deprive Umma of water. His son Il cuts off the water supply to Girsu, a city in Umma.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
1790 BC	Hammurabi	Political tool	No	Code of Hammurabi for the State of Sumer - Hammurabi lists several laws pertaining to irrigation that address negligence of irrigation systems and water theft.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
1720-1684 BC	Abi-Eshuh, Iluma-Ilum	Military tool	Yes	Abi-Eshuh v. Iluma-Ilum- A grandson of Hammurabi, Abish or Abi-Eshuh, dams the Tigris to prevent the retreat of rebels lead by Iluma-Ilum, who declared the independence of Babylon. This failed attempt marks the decline of the Sumerians who had reached their apex under Hammurabi.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
circa 1300BC	Sisra, Barak, God	Religious account, Military Tool	Yes	This is an Old Testament account of the defeat of Sisera and his "nine hundred chariots of iron" by the unmounted army of Barak on the fabled Plains of Esdraelon. God sends heavy rainfall in the mountains, and the Kishon River overflows the plain and immobilizes or destroys Sisera's technologically superior forces ("...the earth trembled, and the heavens dropped, and the clouds also dropped water," Judges 5:4; "...The river of Kishon swept them away, that ancient river, the river Kishon," Judges 5:21).	New Scofield Reference Bible, KJV; Judges 4:7-15 and Judges 5:4-22.

1200 BC	Moses, Egypt	Military tool, Religious account	Yes	Parting of the Red Sea- When Moses and the retreating Jews find themselves trapped between the Pharoah’s army and the Red Sea, Moses miraculously parts the waters of the Red Sea, allowing his followers to escape. The waters close behind them and cut off the Egyptians.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
720-705 BC	Assyria, Armenia	Military tool	Yes	After a successful campaign against the Halidians of Armenia, Sargon II of Assyria destroys their intricate irrigation network and floods their land.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
705-682 BC	Sennacherib, Babylon	Military weapon /target	Yes	In quelling rebellious Assyrians in 695 B.C., Sennacherib razes Babylon and diverts one of the principal irrigation canals so that its waters wash over the ruins.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
Unknown	Sennacherib, Jerusalem	Military tool	Yes	As recounted in Chronicles 32.3, Hezekiah digs into a well outside the walls of Jerusalem and uses a conduit to bring in water. Preparing for a possible siege by Sennacherib, he cuts off water supplies outside of the city walls, and Jerusalem survives the attack.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
681-699 BC	Assyria, Tyre	Military tool, Religious account	Yes	Esarhaddon, an Assyrian, refers to an earlier period when gods, angered by insolent mortals, created destructive floods. According to inscriptions recorded during his reign, Esarhaddon besieges Tyre, cutting off food and water.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
669-626 BC	Assyria, Arabia, Elam	Military tool, Military target	Yes	Assurbanipal’s inscriptions also refer to a siege against Tyre, although scholars attribute it to Esarhaddon. In campaigns against both Arabia and Elam in 645 B.C., Assurbanipal, son of Esarhaddon, dries up wells to deprive Elamite troops. He also guards wells from Arabian fugitives in an earlier Arabian war. On his return from victorious battle against Elam, Assurbanipal floods the city of Sapibel, and ally of Elam. According to inscriptions, he dams the Ulai River with the bodies of dead Elamite soldiers and deprives dead Elamite kinds of their food and water offerings.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
612 BC	Egypt, Persia, Babylon, Assyria	Military tool	Yes	A coalition of Egyptian, Median (Persian), and Babylonian forces attacks and destroys Ninevah, the capital of Assyria. Nebuchadnezzar’s father, Nebopolassar, leads the Babylonians. The converging armies divert the Khosr River to create a flood, which allows them to elevate their siege engines on rafts.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
605-562 BC	Babylon	Military tool	No	Nebuchadnezzar builds immense walls around Babylon, using the Euphrates and canals as defensive moats surrounding the inner castle.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
558-528 BC	Babylon	Military tool	Yes	On his way from Sardis to defeat Nabonidus at Babylon, Cyrus faces a powerful tributary of the Tigris, probably the Diyalah. According to Herodotus’ account, the river drowns his royal white horse and presents a formidable obstacle to his march. Cyrus, angered by the “insolence” of the river, halts his army and orders them to cut 360 canals to divert the river’s flow. Other historians argue the Cyrus needed the water to maintain his troops on their southward journey, while another asserts that the construction was an attempt to win the confidence of the locals.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
539 BC	Babylon	Military tool	Yes	According to Herodotus, Cyrus invades Babylon by diverting the Euphrates above the city and marching troops along the dry riverbed. This popular account describes a midnight attack that coincided with a Babylonian feast.	Hatami and Gleick 1994
355-323 BC	Babylon	Military tool	Yes	Returning from the razing of Persepolis, Alexander proceeds to India. After the Indian campaigns, he heads back to Babylon via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, where he tears down defensive weirs that the Persians had constructed along the river. Arrian describes Alexander’s disdain for the Persians’ attempt to block navigation, which he saw as “unbecoming to men who are victorious in battle.”	Hatami and Gleick 1994

1503	Florence and Pisa warring states.	Military tool	Yes	Leonardo da Vinci and Machievelli plan to divert Arno River away from Pisa during conflict between Pisa and Florence.	Honan 1996
1573-74	Holland and Spain	Military tool	Yes	In 1573 at the beginning of the eighty years war against Spain, the Dutch flooded the land to break the siege of Spanish troops on the town Alkmaar. The same defense was used to protect Lieden in 1574. This strategy became known as the Dutch Water Line and was used frequently for defense in later years.	Dutch Water Line 2002
1642	China; Ming Dynasty	Military tool	Yes	The Huang He's dikes breached for military purposes. In 1642, "toward the end of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), General Gao Mingheng used the tactic near Kaifeng in an attempt to suppress a peasant uprising."	Hillel 1991
1672	French, Dutch	Military tool	Yes	Louis XIV starts the third of the Dutch Wars in 1672, in which the French overran the Netherlands. In defense, the Dutch opened their dikes and flooded the country, creating a watery barrier that was virtually impenetrable.	Columbia 2000
1748	United States	Development dispute	Yes	Mar 28 - Ferry house on Brooklyn shore of East River burns down. New Yorkers accuse Brooklynites of having set the fire as revenge for unfair East River water rights.	MCNY n.d.
1777	United States	Military tool	Yes	British and Hessians attacked the water system of New York “that the enemy wantonly destroyed the New York water works” during the War for Independence.	Thatcher 1827
1841	Canada	Development dispute, terrorism	Yes	A reservoir in Ops Township, Upper Canada (now Ontario) was destroyed by neighbors who considered it a hazard to health.	Forkey 1998
1844	United States	Development dispute, terrorism	Yes	A reservoir in Mercer County, Ohio was destroyed by a mob that considered it a hazard to health.	Scheiber 1969
1850s	United States	Development dispute	Yes	Attack on a New Hampshire dam that impounded water for factories downstream by local residents unhappy over its effect on water levels.	Steinberg 1990
1853-1861	United States	Development dispute, terrorism	Yes	Repeated destruction of the banks and reservoirs of the Wabash and Erie Canal in southern Indiana by mobs regarding it as a health hazard.	Fatout 1972, Fickle 1983
1870s	China	Development dispute	No	Local construction and government removal (twice) of an unauthorized dam in Hubei, China.	Rowe 1988
1870s to 1881	United States	Development dispute	Yes	Recurrent friction and eventual violent conflict over water rights in the vicinity of Tularosa, New Mexico involving villagers, ranchers, and farmers.	Rasch 1968
1887	United States	Development dispute, terrorism	Yes	Dynamiting of a canal reservoir in Paulding County, Ohio by a mob regarding it as a health hazard. State Militia called out to restore order.	Walters 1948
1990	Canada	Development dispute	Yes	Partly successful attempt to destroy a lock on the Welland Canal in Ontario, Canada either by Fenians protesting English Policy in Ireland or by agents of Buffalo, NY grain handlers unhappy at the diversion of trade through the canal.	Styran and Taylor 2001
1908-09	United States	Development dispute	Yes	Violence, including a murder, directed against agents of a land company that claimed title to Reelfoot Lake in northwestern Tennessee who attempted to levy charges for fish taken and threatened to drain the lake for agriculture.	Vanderwood 1969
1863	United States Civil War	Military tool	Yes	General U.S. Grant, during the Civil War campaign against Vicksburg, cut levees in the battle against the Confederates.	Grant1885, Barry 1997
1898	Egypt; France; Britain	Military and political tool, Control of water resources	Military maneuvers	Military conflict nearly ensues between Britain and France in 1898 when a French expedition attempted to gain control of the headwaters of the White Nile. While the parties ultimately negotiates a settlement of the dispute, the incident has been characterized as having "dramatized Egypt's vulnerable dependence on the Nile, and fixed the attitude of Egyptian policy-makers ever since.”	Moorhead 1960
1907- 1913	Owens Valley, Los Angeles, California	Political tool, Control of water resources, Terrorism, and Development dispute	Yes	The Los Angeles Valley aqueduct/pipeline suffers repeated bombings in an effort to prevent diversions of water from the Owens Valley to Los Angeles.	Reisner 1986, 1993
1915	German Southwest Africa	Military tool	Yes	Union of South African troops capture Windhoek, capital of German Southwest Africa. (May.) Retreating German troops poison wells – “a violation of the Hague convention.”	Daniel 1995
1935	California, Arizona	Political tool, development dispute	Military maneuvers	Arizona calls out the National Guard and militia units to the border with California to protest the construction of Parker Dam and diversions from the Colorado River; dispute ultimately is settled in court.	Reisner 1986, 1993
1938	China and Japan	Military tool, Military target	Yes	Chiang Kai-shek orders the destruction of flood-control dikes of the Huayuankou section of the Huang He (Yellow) river to flood areas threatened by the Japanese army. West of Kaifeng dikes are destroyed with dynamite, spilling water across the flat plain. The flood destroyed part of the invading army and its heavy equipment was mired in thick mud, though Wuhan, the headquarters of the Nationalist government was taken in October. The waters flooded an area variously estimated as between 3,000 and 50,000 square kilometers, and killed Chinese estimated in numbers between “tens of thousands” and “one million.”	Hillel 1991, Yang Lang 1989, 1994
1939-1942	Japan, China	Military target, Military tool	Yes	Japanese chemical and biological weapons activities reportedly include tests by “Unit 731” against military and civilian targets by lacing water wells and reservoirs with typhoid and other pathogens.	Harris 1994
1940-1945	Multiple parties	Military target	Yes	Hydroelectric dams routinely bombed as strategic targets during World War II.	Gleick 1993
1943	Britain, Germany	Military target	Yes	British Royal Air Force bombed dams on the Möhne, Sorpe, and Eder Rivers, Germany (May 16, 17). Möhne Dam breech killed 1,200, destroyed all downstream dams for 50 km. The flood that occurred after breaking the Eder dam reached a peak discharge of 8500 m³/s, which is nine times higher than the highest flood observed. Many houses and bridges were destroyed. 68 were killed.	Kirschner 1949, Semann 1950
1944	Germany, Italy, Britain, United States	Military tool	Yes	German forces used waters from the Isoletta Dam (Liri River) in January and February to successfully destroy British assault forces crossing the Garigliano River (downstream of Liri River). The German Army then dammed the Rapido River, flooding a valley occupied by the American Army.	Corps of Engineers 1953
1944	Germany, Italy, Britain, United States	Military tool	Yes	German Army flooded the Pontine Marches by destroying drainage pumps to contain the Anzio beachhead established by the Allied landings in 1944. Over 40 square miles of land were flooded; a 30-mile stretch of landing beaches was rendered unusable for amphibious support forces.	Corps of Engineers 1953
1944	Germany, Allied forces	Military tool	Yes	Germans flooded the Ay River, France (July) creating a lake two meters deep and several kilometers wide, slowing an advance on Saint Lo, a German communications center in Normandy.	Corps of Engineers 1953
1944	Germany, Allied forces	Military tool	Yes	Germans flooded the Ill River Valley during the Battle of the Bulge (winter 1944-45) creating a lake 16 kilometers long, 3-6 kilometers wide, and 1-2 meters deep, greatly delaying the American Army’s advance toward the Rhine.	Corps of Engineers 1953
1947 onwards	Bangladesh, India	Development disputes, Control of water resources	No	Partition divides the Ganges River between Bangladesh and India; construction of the Farakka barrage by India, beginning in 1962, increases tension; short-term agreements settle dispute in 1977-82, 1982-84, and 1985-88, and thirty-year treaty is signed in 1996.	Butts 1997, Samson & Charrier 1997
1947-1960s	India, Pakistan	Development disputes, Control of water resources, and Political tool	No	Partition leaves Indus basin divided between India and Pakistan; disputes over irrigation water ensue, during which India stems flow of water into irrigation canals in Pakistan; Indus Waters Agreement reached in 1960 after 12 years of World Bank-led negotiations.	Bingham et al. 1994, Wolf 1997
1948	Arabs, Israelis	Military tool	Yes	Arab forces cut of West Jerusalem’s water supply in first Arab-Israeli war.	Wolf 1995, 1997
1950s	Korea, United States, others	Military target	Yes	Centralized dams on the Yalu River serving North Korea and China are attacked during Korean War.	Gleick 1993
1951	Korea, United Nations	Military tool and Military target	Yes	North Korea released flood waves from the Hwachon Dam damaging floating bridges operated by UN troops in the Pukhan Valley. U.S. Navy plans were then sent to destroy spillway crest gates.	Corps of Engineers 1953
1951	Israel, Jordan, Syria	Political tool, Military tool, Development disputes	Yes	Jordan makes public its plans to irrigate the Jordan Valley by tapping the Yarmouk River; Israel responds by commencing drainage of the Huleh swamps located in the demilitarized zone between Israel and Syria; border skirmishes ensue between Israel and Syria.	Wolf 1997, Samson & Charrier 1997
1953	Israel, Jordan, Syria	Development dispute, Military target, Political tool	Yes	Israel begins construction of its National Water Carrier to transfer water from the north of the Sea of Galilee out of the Jordan basin to the Negev Desert for irrigation. Syrian military actions along the border and international disapproval lead Israel to move its intake to the Sea of Galilee.	Naff and Matson 1984, Samson & Charrier 1997
1958	Egypt, Sudan	Military tool, Political tool, Control of water resources	Yes	Egypt sends an unsuccessful military expedition into disputed territory amidst pending negotiations over the Nile waters, Sudanese general elections, and an Egyptian vote on Sudan-Egypt unification; Nile Water Treaty signed when pro-Egyptian government elected in Sudan.	Wolf 1997
1960s	North Vietnam, United States	Military target	Yes	Irrigation water supply systems in North Vietnam are bombed during Vietnam War. 661 sections of dikes damaged or destroyed.	IWTC 1967, Gleick 1993, Zemmali 1995
1962	Israel, Syria	Control of water resources	Yes	Israel destroys irrigation ditches in the lower Tarfiq in the demilitarized zone. Syria complains.	Naff and Matson 1984
1962 to 1967	Brazil; Paraguay	Military tool, Political tool, Control of water resources	Military maneuvers	Negotiations between Brazil and Paraguay over the development of the Paraná River are interrupted by a unilateral show of military force by Brazil in 1962, which invades the area and claims control over the Guaira Falls site. Military forces were withdrawn in 1967 following an agreement for a joint commission to examine development in the region.	Murphy and Sabadell 1986
1963-1964	Ethiopia, Somalia	Development dispute, Military tool, Political tool	Yes	Creation of boundaries in 1948 leaves Somali nomads under Ethiopian rule; border skirmishes occur over disputed territory in Ogaden desert where critical water and oil resources are located; cease-fire is negotiated only after several hundred are killed.	Wolf 1997
1964	Cuba, United States	Military weapon	No	On February 6, 1964, the Cuban government ordered the water supply to the U.S. Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay cut off.	Guantanamo Bay Gazette. 1964.
1964	Israel, Syria	Military target, Control of water resources	Yes	Headwaters of the Dan River on the Jordan River are bombed at Tell El-Qadi in a dispute about sovereignty over the source of the Dan.	Naff and Matson 1984
1965	Zambia, Rhodesia, Great Britain	Military target	No	President Kenneth Kaunda calls on British government to send troops to Kariba Dam to protect it from possible saboteurs from Rhodesian government.	Chenje 2001
1965	Israel, Palestinians	Terrorism	Yes	First attack ever by the Palestinian National Liberation Movement Al-Fatah is on the diversion pumps for the Israeli National Water Carrier. Attack fails.	Naff and Matson 1984, Dolatyar 1995
1965-1966	Israel, Syria	Military tool, Political tool, Control of water resources, Development dispute	Yes	Fire is exchanged over “all-Arab” plan to divert the Jordan River headwaters (Hasbani and Banias) and presumably preempt Israeli National Water Carrier; Syria halts construction of its diversion in July 1966.	Wolf 1995, 1997
1966-1972	Vietnam, US	Military tool	Yes	U.S. tries cloud-seeding in Indochina to stop flow of materiel along Ho Chi Minh trail.	Plant 1995
1967	Israel, Syria	Military target and tool	Yes	Israel destroys the Arab diversion works on the Jordan River headwaters. During Arab-Israeli War Israel occupies Golan Heights, with Banias tributary to the Jordan; Israel occupies West Bank.	Gleick 1993, Wolf 1995, 1997, Wallenstein & Swain 1997
1969	Israel, Jordan	Military target and tool	Yes	Israel, suspicious that Jordan is overdiverting the Yarmouk, leads two raids to destroy the newly-built East Ghor Canal; secret negotiations, mediated by the US, lead to an agreement in 1970.	Samson & Charrier 1997
1970s	Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay	Control of water resources, Development dispute	No	Brazil and Paraguay announce plans to construct a dam at Itaipu on the Paraná River, causing Argentina concern about downstream environmental repercussions and the efficacy of their own planned dam project downstream. Argentina demands to be consulted during the planning of Itaipu but Brazil refuses. An agreement is reached in 1979 that provides for the construction of both Brazil and Paraguay’s dam at Itaipu and Argentina’s Yacyreta dam.	Wallenstein & Swain 1997
1972	North Vietnam	Military target	Yes	United States bombs dikes in the Red River delta, rivers, and canals during massive bombing campaign.	Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia 2000
1974	Iraq, Syria	Military target, Military tool, Political tool, Development dispute	Military maneuvers	Iraq threatens to bomb the al-Thawra dam in Syria and massed troops along the border, alleging that the dam had reduced the flow of Euphrates River water to Iraq.	Gleick 1994
1975	Iraq, Syria	Development dispute, Military tool, Political tool	Military maneuvers	As upstream dams are filled during a low-flow year on the Euphrates, Iraqis claim that flow reaching its territory is “intolerable” and asks the Arab League to intervene. Syrians claim they are receiving less than half the river’s normal flow and pull out of an Arab League technical committee formed to mediate the conflict. In May Syria closes its airspace to Iraqi flights and both Syrian and Iraq reportedly transfer troops to their mutual border. Saudi Arabia successfully mediates the conflict.	Gleick 1993, 1994, Wolf 1997
1975	Angola, South Africa	Military control of water resources	Yes	South African troops move into Angola to occupy and defend the Ruacana hydropower complex, including the Gové Dam on the Kunene River. Goal is to take possession of and defend the water resources of southwestern Africa and Namibia.	Meissner 2000
1978-onwards	Egypt, Ethiopia	Development dispute, Political tool	No	Long standing tensions over the Nile, especially the Blue Nile, originating in Ethiopia. Ethiopia’s proposed construction of dams on the headwaters of the Blue Nile leads Egypt to repeatedly declare the vital importance of water. "The only matter that could take Egypt to war again is water” (Anwar Sadat-1979). "The next war in our region will be over the waters of the Nile, not politics” (Boutrous Ghali-1988).	Gleick 1991, 1994
1978-1984	Sudan	Development dispute, Military target, Terrorism	Yes	Demonstrations in Juba, Sudan in 1978 opposing the construction of the Jonglei Canal led to the deaths of two students. Construction of the Jonglei Canal in the Sudan was forcibly suspended in 1984 following a series of attacks on the construction site.	Suliman 1998; Keluel-Jang 1997
1979	United States	Development/ labor dispute/ Terrorism	Yes	Employee sabotage at the Virginia Surry Nuclear Power plant led to an investigation by the FBI.	Shapiro 2004
1980s	Mozambique, Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, South Africa	Military target, Terrorism	Yes	Regular destruction of power lines from Cahora Bassa Dam during fight for independence in the region. Dam targeted by RENAMO.	Chenje 2001
1981	Iran, Iraq	Military target and tool	Yes	Iran claims to have bombed a hydroelectric facility in Kurdistan, thereby blacking out large portions of Iraq, during the Iran-Iraq War.	Gleick 1993
1980-1988	Iran, Iraq	Military tool	Yes	Iran diverts water to flood Iraqi defense positions.	Plant 1995
1986	Lesotho, South Africa	Development goal, Access to resources	Yes	Bloodless coup by Lesotho’s defense forces, with support from South Africa, lead to immediate agreement with South Africa for water from the Highlands of Lesotho, after 30 previous years of unsuccessful negotiations. There is disagreement over the degree to which water was a motivating factor for either party.	Mohamed 2001
1988	Angola, South Africa, Cuba	Military goal, Military target	Yes	Cuban and Angolan forces launch an attack on Calueque Dam via land and then air. Considerable damage inflicted on dam wall; power supply to dam cut. Water pipeline to Owamboland cut and destroyed.	Meissner 2000
1982	Israel, Lebanon, Syria	Military tool	Yes	Israel cuts off the water supply of Beirut during siege.	Wolf 1997
1982	Guatemala	Development dispute	Yes	177 civilians killed in Rio Negro over opposition to Chixoy hydroelectric dam.	Levy 2000
1984	United States	Terrorism	No	Members of the Rajneeshee religious cult contaminate a city water supply tank in The Dalles, Oregon, using Salmonella. A community outbreak of over 750 cases occurred in a county that normally reports fewer than five cases per year.	Clark and Deininger 2000
1986	North Korea, South Korea	Military tool	No	North Korea’s announcement of its plans to build the Kumgansan hydroelectric dam on a tributary of the Han River upstream of Seoul raises concerns in South Korea that the dam could be used as a tool for ecological destruction or war.	Gleick 1993
1986	Lesotho, South Africa	Military goal; Control of water resources	Yes	South Africa supports coup in Lesotho over support for ANC and anti-apartheid, and water. New government in Lesotho then quickly signs Lesotho Highlands water agreement.	American University 2000b
1990	South Africa	Development dispute, Control of water resources	No	Pro-apartheid council cuts off water to the Wesselton township of 50,000 blacks following protests over miserable sanitation and living conditions.	Gleick 1993
1990	Iraq, Syria, Turkey	Development dispute, Military tool, Political tool	No	The flow of the Euphrates is interrupted for a month as Turkey finishes construction of the Ataturk Dam, part of the Grand Anatolia Project. Syria and Iraq protest that Turkey now has a weapon of war. In mid-1990 Turkish president Turgut Ozal threatens to restrict water flow to Syria to force it to withdraw support for Kurdish rebels operating in southern Turkey.	Gleick 1993 & 1995
1991-present	Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (India)	Development dispute, Control of water resources	Yes	Violence erupts when Karnataka rejects an Interim Order handed down by the Cauvery Waters Tribunal, set up by the Indian Supreme Court. The Tribunal was established in 1990 to settle two decades of dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over irrigation rights to the Cauvery River.	Gleick 1993, Butts 1997, American University 2000a
1991	Iraq, Kuwait, US	Military target	Yes	During the Gulf War, Iraq destroys much of Kuwait’s desalination capacity during retreat.	Gleick 1993
1991	Iraq, Turkey, United Nations	Military tool	Yes	Discussions are held at the United Nations about using the Ataturk Dam in Turkey to cut off flows of the Euphrates to Iraq.	Gleick 1993
1991	Iraq, Kuwait, US	Military target	Yes	Baghdad’s modern water supply and sanitation system are intentionally and unintentionally damaged by Allied coalition. “Four of seven major pumping stations were destroyed, as were 31 municipal water and sewerage facilities – 20 in Baghdad, resulting in sewage pouring into the Tigris. Water purification plants were incapacitated throughout Iraq” (Arbuthnot 2000). In the first eight months of 1991, after Iraq's water infrastructure was damaged by the Persian Gulf War, the New England Journal of Medicine reported that nearly 47,000 more children than normal died in Iraq and the country's infant mortality rate doubled to 92.7 per 1,000 live births.	Gleick 1993, Arbuthnot 2000, Barrett 2003
1992	Czechoslovakia, Hungary	Political tool, Development dispute	Military maneuvers	Hungary abrogates a 1977 treaty with Czechoslovakia concerning construction of the Gabcikovo/Nagymaros project based on environmental concerns. Slovakia continues construction unilaterally, completes the dam, and diverts the Danube into a canal inside the Slovakian republic. Massive public protest and movement of military to the border ensue; issue taken to the International Court of Justice.	Gleick 1993
1992	Bosnia, Bosnian Serbs	Military tool	Yes	The Serbian siege of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, includes a cutoff of all electrical power and the water feeding the city from the surrounding mountains. The lack of power cuts the two main pumping stations inside the city despite pledges from Serbian nationalist leaders to United Nations officials that they would not use their control of Sarajevo's utilities as a weapon. Bosnian Serbs take control of water valves regulating flow from wells that provide more than 80 percent of water to Sarajevo; reduced water flow to city is used to ‘smoke out’ Bosnians.	Burns 1992, Husarska 1995
1993-present	Iraq	Military tool	No	To quell opposition to his government, Saddam Hussein reportedly poisons and drains the water supplies of southern Shiite Muslims, the Ma'dan. The marshes of southern Iraq are intentionally targeted. The European Parliament and UN Human Rights Commission deplore use of water as weapon in region.	Gleick 1993, American University 2000c, National Geographic News 2001
1993	Yugoslavia	Military target and tool	Yes	Peruca Dam intentionally destroyed during war.	Gleick 1993
1995	Ecuador, Peru	Military and political tool	Yes	Armed skirmishes arise in part because of disagreement over the control of the headwaters of Cenepa River. Wolf argues that this is primarily a border dispute simply coinciding with location of a water resource.	Samson & Charrier 1997, Wolf 1997
1997	Singapore, Malaysia	Political tool	No	Malaysia supplies about half of Singapore’s water and in 1997 threatened to cut off that supply in retribution for criticisms by Singapore of policy in Malaysia.	Zachary 1997
1998	Tajikistan	Terrorism, Political tool	Potential	On November 6, a guerrilla commander threatened to blow up a dam on the Kairakkhum channel if political demands are not met. Col. Makhmud Khudoberdyev made the threat, reported by the ITAR-Tass News Agency.	WRR 1998
1998	Angola	Military and political tool	Yes	In September 1998, fierce fighting between UNITA and Angolan government forces broke out at Gove Dam on the Kunene River for control of the installation.	Meissner 2001
1998/1994	United States	Cyber-terrorism	No	The Washington Post reports a 12-year old computer hacker broke into the SCADA computer system that runs Arizona’s Roosevelt Dam, giving him complete control of the dam’s massive floodgates. The cities of Mesa, Tempe, and Phoenix, Arizona are downstream of this dam. No damage was done. This report turns out to be incorrect. A hacker did break into the computers of an Arizona water facility, the Salt River Project in the Phoenix area. But he was 27, not 12, and the incident occurred in 1994, not 1998. And while clearly trespassing in critical areas, the hacker never could have had control of any dams--leading investigators to conclude that no lives or property were ever threatened.	Gellman 2002, Lemos 2002
1998	Democratic Republic of Congo	Military target, Terrorism	Yes	Attacks on Inga Dam during efforts to topple President Kabila. Disruption of electricity supplies from Inga Dam and water supplies to Kinshasa	Chenje 2001, Human Rights Watch 1998
1998 to 2000	Eritrea and Ethiopia	Military target	Yes	Water pumping plants and pipelines in the border town of Adi Quala were destroyed during the civil war between Eritrea and Ethiopia.	ICRC 2003

1999	Lusaka, Zambia	Terrorism, Political tool	Yes	Bomb blast destroyed the main water pipeline, cutting off water for the city of Lusaka, population 3 million.	FTGWR 1999
1999	Yugoslavia	Military target	Yes	Belgrade reported that NATO planes had targeted a hydroelectric plant during the Kosovo campaign.	Reuters 1999a
1999	Bangladesh	Development dispute, Political tool	Yes	50 hurt during strikes called to protest power and water shortages. Protest led by former Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia over deterioration of public services and in law and order.	Ahmed 1999
1999	Yugoslavia	Military target	Yes	NATO targets utilities and shuts down water supplies in Belgrade. NATO bombs bridges on Danube, disrupting navigation.	Reuters 1999b
1999	Yugoslavia	Political tool	Yes	Yugoslavia refuses to clear war debris on Danube (downed bridges) unless financial aid for reconstruction is provided; European countries on Danube fear flooding due to winter ice dams will result. Diplomats decry environmental blackmail.	Simons 1999
1999	Kosovo	Political tool	Yes	Serbian engineers shut down water system in Pristina prior to occupation by NATO.	Reuters 1999c
1999	Angola	Terrorism, Political tool	Yes	100 bodies were found in four drinking water wells in central Angola.	International Herald Tribune 1999
1999	Puerto Rico, U.S.	Political tool	No	Protesters blocked water intake to Roosevelt Roads Navy Base in opposition to U.S. military presence and Navy’s use of the Blanco River, following chronic water shortages in neighboring towns.	New York Times 1999
1999	China	Development Dispute	Yes	Around Chinese New Years, farmers from Hebei and Henan Provinces fought over limited water resources. Heavy weapons, including mortars and bombs, were used and nearly 100 villagers were injured. Houses and facilities were damaged and the total loss reached one million $US. Parties involved: Huanglongkou Village, Shexian County, Hebei Province and Gucheng Village, Linzhou City, Henan Province	China Water Resources Daily 2002
1999	East Timor	Military tool, Political tool, Terrorism	Yes	Militia opposing East Timor independence kill pro-independence supporters and throw bodies in water well.	BBC 1999

1999	Kosovo	Terrorism, Political tool	Yes	Contamination of water supplies/wells by Serbs disposing of bodies of Kosovar Albanians in local wells.	CNN 1999
1999 to 2000	Namibia, Botswana, Zambia	Military goal: Control of water resources	No	Sedudu/Kasikili Island, in the Zambezi/Chobe River. Dispute over border and access to water. Presented to the International Court of Justice	ICJ 1999

2000	Ethiopia	Development dispute	Yes	One man stabbed to death during fight over clean water during famine in Ethiopia	Sandrasagra 2000

2000	Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan	Political tool	No	Kyrgyzstan cuts off water to Kazakhstan until coal is delivered; Uzbekistan cuts off water to Kazakhstan for non-payment of debt.	Pannier 2000

2000	Hazarajat, Afghanistan	Development dispute	Yes	Violent conflicts broke out over water resources in the villages Burna Legan and Taina Legan, and in other parts of the region, as drought depleted local resources.	Cooperation Center for Afghanistan 2000
2000	India: Gujarat	Development dispute	Yes	Water riots reported in some areas of Gujarat to protest against authority’s failure to arrange adequate supply of tanker water. Police are reported to have shot into a crowd at Falla village near Jamnagar, resulting in the death of three and injuries to 20 following protests against the diversion of water from the Kankavati dam to Jamnagar town.	FTGWR 2000
2000	Kenya	Development dispute	Yes	A clash between villagers and thirsty monkeys left eight apes dead and ten villagers wounded. The duel started after water tankers brought water to a drought-stricken area and monkeys desperate for water attacked the villagers.	BBC 2000, Okoko 2000
2000	Australia	Cyber-terrorism (?)	No	In Queensland, Australia, on April 23^rd, 2000, police arrested a man for using a computer and radio transmitter to take control of the Maroochy Shire wastewater system and release sewage into parks, rivers, and property. This is one of the first documented cases of cyber-terrorism (or perhaps just electronic vandalism?) in the water industry.	Gellman 2002
2000	China	Development dispute	Yes	Civil unrest erupted over use and allocation of water from Baiyangdian Lake – the largest natural lake in northern China. Several people died in riots by villagers in July 2000 in Shandong after officials cut off water supplies. In August 2000, six died when officials in the southern province of Guangdong blew up a water channel to prevent a neighboring county from diverting water.	Pottinger 2000
2001	Israel, Palestine	Terrorism, Control of water resources		Palestinians destroy water supply pipelines to West Bank settlement of Yitzhar and to Kibbutz Kisufim. Agbat Jabar refugee camp near Jericho disconnected from its water supply after Palestinians looted and damaged local water pumps. Palestinians accuse Israel of destroying a water cistern, blocking water tanker deliveries, and attacking materials for a wastewater treatment project.	Israel Line 2001a,b; ENS 2001a.

2001	Pakistan	Development dispute, Terrorism	Yes	Civil unrest over severe water shortages caused by the long-term drought. Protests began in March and April and continued into summer. Riots, four bombs in Karachi (June 13), one death, 12 injuries, 30 arrests. Ethnic conflicts as some groups “accuse the government of favoring the populous Punjab province [over Sindh province] in water distribution.”	Nadeem 2001, Soloman 2001

2001	Macedonia	Terrorism, Control of water resources	Yes	Water flow to Kumanovo (population 100,000) cut off for 12 days in conflict between ethnic Albanians and Macedonian forces. Valves of Glaznja and Lipkovo Lakes damaged.	AFP 2001, Macedonia Information Agency 2001
2001	China	Development dispute	Yes	In an act to protest destruction of fisheries from uncontrolled water pollution, fishermen in northern Jiaxing City, Zhejiang Province, dammed the canal that carries 90 million tons of industrial wastewater per year for 23 days. The wastewater discharge into the neighboring Shengze Town, Jiangsu Province, killed fish, and threatened people's health.	China Ministry of Water Resources 2001.

2001	Philippines	Terrorism, Political tool	No	Philippine authorities shut off water to six remote southern villages yesterday after residents complained of a foul smell from their taps, raising fears Muslim guerrillas had contaminated the supplies. Abu Sayyaf guerrillas, accused of links with Saudi-born militant Osami bin Laden, had threatened to poison the water supply in the mainly Christian town of Isabela on Basilan island if the military did not stop an offensive against them.	World Environment News 2001

2001	Afghanistan	Military target	Yes	U.S. forces bombed the hydroelectric facility at Kajaki Dam in Helmand province of Afghanistan, cutting off electricity for the city of Kandahar. The dam itself was apparently not targeted.	BBC 2001, Parry 2001

2002	Nepal	Terrorism, Political Tool	Yes	The Khumbuwan Liberation Front (KLF) blew up a hydroelectric powerhouse of 250 kilowatts in Bhojpur District January 26. The power supply to Bhojpur and adjoining areas was cut off. Estimated repair time was 6 months; repair costs were estimated at 10 million Rs. By June 2002, Maoist rebels had destroyed more than seven micro-hydro projects as well as an intake of a drinking water project and pipelines supplying water to Khalanga in western Nepal.	Kathmandu Post 2002; FTGWR 2002a
2002	Rome, Italy	Terrorism	No	Italian police arrest four Moroccans allegedly planning to contaminate the water supply system in Rome with a cyanide-based chemical, targeting buildings that included the United States embassy. Ties to Al-Queda were suggested.	BBC 2002
2002	Kashmir, India	Development dispute	Yes	Two people were killed and 25 others injured in Kashmir when police fired at a group of villagers clashing over water sharing. The incident took place in Garend village in a dispute over sharing water from an irrigation stream.	The Japan Times 2002

2002	United States	Terrorism	No	Among the items seized during the arrest of a Lebanese national who moved to the US and became an Imam at a Islamist mosque in Seattle were papers by London-based al-Qaida recruiter including "instructions on poisoning water sources." The FBI issued a bulletin to computer security experts around the country indicating that al-Qaida terrorists may have been studying American dams and water-supply systems in preparation for new attacks. "U.S. law enforcement and intelligence agencies have received indications that al-Qaida members have sought information on Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems available on multiple SCADA-related Web sites," reads the bulletin, according to SecurityFocus. "They specifically sought information on water supply and wastewater management practices in the U.S. and abroad."	McDonnell and Meyer 2002, MSNBC 2002

2002	Colombia	Terrorism	Yes	Colombian rebels in January damaged a gate valve in the dam that supplies most of Bogota’s drinking water. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), detonated an explosive device planted on a German-made gate valve located inside a tunnel in the Chingaza Dam, which provides most of the capital city’s water.	Waterweek 2002
2002	Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, India	Development dispute	Yes	Continuing violence over the allocation of the Cauvery River between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Riots, property destruction, more than 30 injuries, arrests through September and October.	The Hindu 2002a,b, The Times of India 2002a.

2002	United States	Terrorism	No	Earth Liberation Front threatens the water supply for the town of Winter Park. Previously, this group claimed responsibility for the destruction of a ski lodge in Vail, Colorado that threatened lynx habitat.	Crecente 2002, Associated Press 2002

2003-2004	Sudan	Political and Military Tool, Target	Yes	The ongoing civil war in the Sudan has included violence against water resources. In 2003, villagers from around Tina said that bombings had destroyed water wells. In Khasan Basao they alleged that water wells were poisoned. In 2004, wells in Darfur were intentionally contaminated as part of a strategy of harassment against displaced populations.	Toronto Daily 2004, Reuters Foundation 2004

2003	United States	Terrorism	No	Al-Qaida threatens US water systems via call to Saudi Arabian magazine. Al-Qaida does not “rule out…the poisoning of drinking water in American and Western cities.”	Associated Press 2003a, Waterman 2003, NewsMax 2003, US Water News 2003
2003	United States	Terrorism	Yes	Four incendiary devices were found in the pumping station of a Michigan water-bottling plant. The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) claimed responsibility, accusing Ice Mountain Water Company of “stealing” water for profit. Ice Mountain is a subsidiary of Nestle Waters.	Associated Press 2003b
2003	Colombia	Terrorism, development dispute	Yes	A bomb blast at the Cali Drinking Water Treatment Plant killed 3 workers May 8^th. The workers were members of a trade union involved in intense negotiations over privatization of the water system.	PSI 2003
2003	Iraq, United States, Others	Military Target	Yes	During the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, water systems were reportedly damaged or destroyed by different parties, and major dams were military objectives of the U.S. forces. Damage directly attributable to the war includes vast segments of the water distribution system and the Baghdad water system, damaged by a missile.	UNICEF 2003, ARC 2003

2003	Iraq	Terrorism	Yes	Sabotage/bombing of main water pipeline in Baghdad. The sabotage of the water pipeline was the first such strike against Baghdad's water system, city water engineers said. It happened around 7 in the morning, when a blue Volkswagen Passat stopped on an overpass near the Nidaa mosque and an explosive was fired at the six-foot-wide water main in the northern part of Baghdad, said Hayder Muhammad, the chief engineer for the city's water treatment plants.	Tierney and Worth 2003
2004	Mexico	Development dispute	Yes	Two Mexican farmers argued for years over water rights to a small spring used to irrigate a small corn plot near the town of Pihuamo. In March, these farmers shot each other dead.	The Guardian 2004
2004	Pakistan	Terrorism	Yes	In military action aimed at Islamic terrorists, including Al Qaeda and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, homes, schools, and water wells were damaged and destroyed.	Reuters 2004a
2004	India, Kashmir	Terrorism	Yes	Twelve Indian security forces were killed by an IED planted in an underground water pipe during “counter-insurgency operation in Khanabal area in Anantnag district.”	TNN 2004
2004	India	Development dispute	Yes	Four people were killed in October and more than 30 injured in November in ongoing protests by farmers over allocations of water from the Indira Ghandi Irrigation Canal in Sriganganagar district, which borders Pakistan. A curfew was imposed in the towns of Gharsana, Raola and Anoopgarh.	Indo-Asian News Service 200
2004	Somalia	Development dispute	Yes	At least 50 people killed and many more injured in clashes two divisions of the same clan on Wednesday, in the village of Gelinsor and nearby villages along the Ethiopian border. The fighting reportedly began over access to pastoral land and water wells.	BBC 2004

Notes:

Conflicts may stem from the drive to possess or control another nation’s water resources, thus making water systems and resources a political or military goal. Inequitable distribution and use of water resources, sometimes arising from a water development, may lead to development disputes, heighten the importance of water as a strategic goal or may lead to a degradation of another’s source of water. Conflicts may also arise when water systems are used as instruments of war, either as targets or tools. These distinctions are described in detail in Gleick (1993, 1998). In 2001, the Institute began including incidents involving water and terrorism. We note, however, the difficulty in defining “terrorism” (as opposed to Political goal or other category) and caution users to use care with these categories.
Thanks to the many people who have contributed to this over time, including William Meyer who sent 9 fascinating items from the 1800s, Patrick Marsh, Hans-Juergen.Liebscher, Robert Halliday, Ma Jun, Marcus Moench, and others I’ve no doubt forgotten.

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